Sometimes, information is available only from reports of the diagnosis , treatment, and follow-up of one child or a small group of children who were given the same type of treatment. Many different cancers are covered in this summary. They are grouped by where they are found in the body. Tests are done to detect, diagnose , and stage cancer.
The tests used depend on the type of cancer. After cancer is diagnosed, tests are done to find out if cancer cells have spread from where the cancer began to other parts of the body. The process used to find out if cancer cells have spread to other parts of the body is called staging.
The information gathered from the staging process determines the stage of the disease. It is important to know the stage in order to plan the best treatment. The following tests and procedures may be used to detect, diagnose, and stage cancer:. Physical exam and history : An exam of the body to check general signs of health, including checking for signs of disease, such as lumps or anything else that seems unusual.
Blood chemistry studies : A procedure in which a blood sample is checked to measure the amounts of certain substances released into the blood by organs and tissues in the body. An unusual higher or lower than normal amount of a substance can be a sign of disease in the organ or tissue that makes it.
Biopsy : The removal of cells or tissues so they can be viewed under a microscope by a pathologist to check for signs of cancer. There are many different types of biopsy procedures. The most common types include the following:. Core biopsy : The removal of tissue using a wide needle. Fine-needle aspiration FNA biopsy : The removal of tissue or fluid using a thin needle. X-ray : An x-ray is a type of energy beam that can go through the body and onto film.
CT scan CAT scan : A procedure that makes a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body, taken from different angles. The pictures are made by a computer linked to an x-ray machine. This procedure is also called computed tomography, computerized tomography, or computerized axial tomography.
Computed tomography CT scan of the abdomen. The patient lies on a table that slides through the CT machine, which takes x-ray pictures of the inside of the body. MRI magnetic resonance imaging : A procedure that uses a magnet and radio waves to make a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body. The pictures are made by a computer. This procedure is also called nuclear magnetic resonance imaging NMRI.
Magnetic resonance imaging MRI of the abdomen. The patient lies on a table that slides into the MRI machine, which takes pictures of the inside of the body. Ultrasound exam: A procedure in which high-energy sound waves ultrasound are bounced off internal tissues or organs and make echoes. The echoes form a picture of body tissues called a sonogram. The picture can be printed to be looked at later.
Abdominal ultrasound. An ultrasound transducer connected to a computer is passed over the surface of the abdomen. The ultrasound transducer bounces sound waves off internal organs and tissues to make echoes that form a sonogram computer picture.
Endoscopy : A procedure to look at organs and tissues inside the body to check for abnormal areas. An endoscope is inserted through an incision cut in the skin or opening in the body, such as the mouth or rectum. An endoscope is a thin, tube-like instrument with a light and a lens for viewing. It may also have a tool to remove tissue or lymph node samples, which are checked under a microscope for signs of disease.
Upper endoscopy. A thin, lighted tube is inserted through the mouth to look for abnormal areas in the esophagus, stomach, and first part of the small intestine. Bone scan : A procedure to check if there are rapidly dividing cells, such as cancer cells, in the bone.
A very small amount of radioactive material is injected into a vein and travels through the bloodstream. The radioactive material collects in the bones and is detected by a scanner.
Bone scan. A small amount of radioactive material is injected into the patient's bloodstream and collects in abnormal cells in the bones. As the patient lies on a table that slides under the scanner, the radioactive material is detected and images are made on a computer screen or film. Through tissue. Cancer invades the surrounding normal tissue.
Through the lymph system. Cancer invades the lymph system and travels through the lymph vessels to other places in the body. Through the blood. Cancer invades the veins and capillaries and travels through the blood to other places in the body. When cancer cells break away from the primary original tumor and travel through the lymph or blood to other places in the body, another secondary tumor may form.
This process is called metastasis. The secondary metastatic tumor is the same type of cancer as the primary tumor. For example, if breast cancer spreads to the bones, the cancer cells in the bones are actually breast cancer cells. The disease is metastatic breast cancer, not bone cancer. Different types of treatments are available for children with cancer. Some treatments are standard the currently used treatment , and some are being tested in clinical trials.
A treatment clinical trial is a research study meant to help improve current treatments or obtain information on new treatments for patients with cancer.
When clinical trials show that a new treatment is better than the standard treatment, the new treatment may become the standard treatment. Because cancer in children is rare, taking part in a clinical trial should be considered.
Some clinical trials are open only to patients who have not started treatment. Treatment will be overseen by a pediatric oncologist , a doctor who specializes in treating children with cancer. The pediatric oncologist works with other pediatric health care providers who are experts in treating children with cancer and who specialize in certain areas of medicine.
These may include the following specialists:. Pediatric surgeon. Pediatric hematologist. Radiation oncologist. Pediatric nurse specialist. Rehabilitation specialist. Social worker. Surgery is a procedure used to find out whether cancer is present, to remove cancer from the body, or to repair a body part.
Palliative surgery is done to relieve symptoms caused by cancer. Surgery is also called an operation. Even if the doctor removes all the cancer that can be seen at the time of the surgery, some patients may be given chemotherapy or radiation therapy after surgery to kill any cancer cells that are left. Treatment given after the surgery, to lower the risk that the cancer will come back, is called adjuvant therapy.
Radiation therapy is a cancer treatment that uses high energy x-rays or other types of radiation to kill cancer cells or keep them from growing. There are two types of radiation therapy.
External radiation therapy uses a machine outside the body to send radiation toward the cancer. Internal radiation therapy uses a radioactive substance that is injected into the body or sealed in needles, seeds , wires, or catheters that are placed directly into or near the cancer.
Radiosurgery and proton beam therapy are two kinds of external radiation therapy used to treat childhood cancers:. Radiosurgery uses special equipment to aim one large dose of radiation directly at a tumor , causing less damage to nearby healthy tissue.
It is also called stereotaxic radiosurgery, stereotactic radiosurgery, and radiation surgery. This procedure does not remove the tumor in an operation. Proton beam radiation therapy is a type of high-energy radiation therapy that uses streams of protons small, positively-charged particles of matter to kill tumor cells. Chemotherapy is a cancer treatment that uses drugs to stop the growth of cancer cells, either by killing the cells or by stopping them from dividing.
When chemotherapy is taken by mouth or injected into a vein or muscle, the drugs enter the bloodstream and can affect cancer cells throughout the body systemic chemotherapy. When chemotherapy is placed directly into the cerebrospinal fluid , a body cavity such as the abdomen , or an organ , the drugs mainly affect cancer cells in those areas.
Combination chemotherapy is treatment using more than one anticancer drug. The way the chemotherapy is given depends on the type and stage of the cancer being treated. Hormone therapy is a cancer treatment that removes hormones or blocks their action and stops cancer cells from growing.
Hormones are substances that are made by glands in the body and flow through the bloodstream. Some hormones can cause certain cancers to grow. If tests show that the cancer cells have places where hormones can attach receptors , drugs, surgery, or radiation therapy is used to reduce the production of hormones or block them from working. Hormone therapy with drugs called corticosteroids may be used to treat thymoma or thymic carcinoma. Biologic therapy is a treatment that uses the patient's immune system to fight cancer.
Substances made by the body or made in a laboratory are used to boost, direct, or restore the body's natural defenses against cancer. This type of cancer treatment is also called biotherapy or immunotherapy. Interferon-beta is a type of biologic therapy used to treat nasopharyngeal cancer. Watchful waiting may be a treatment option when the tumor is slow-growing or when it is possible the tumor may disappear without treatment.
Targeted therapy is a treatment that uses drugs or other substances to identify and attack specific cancer cells without harming normal cells. Tyrosine kinase inhibitors TKIs are targeted therapy drugs that block signals needed for tumors to grow. Vascular endothelial growth factor VEGF inhibitors are another type of targeted therapy that prevents the growth of new blood vessels that tumors need to grow.
For some patients, taking part in a clinical trial may be the best treatment choice. Clinical trials are part of the cancer research process. Clinical trials are done to find out if new cancer treatments are safe and effective or better than the standard treatment. Many of today's standard treatments for cancer are based on earlier clinical trials. Patients who take part in a clinical trial may receive the standard treatment or be among the first to receive a new treatment.
Patients who take part in clinical trials also help improve the way cancer will be treated in the future. Even when clinical trials do not lead to effective new treatments, they often answer important questions and help move research forward. Some clinical trials only include patients who have not yet received treatment. Other trials test treatments for patients whose cancer has not gotten better. There are also clinical trials that test new ways to stop cancer from recurring coming back or reduce the side effects of cancer treatment.
Clinical trials are taking place in many parts of the country. See the Treatment Options section that follows for links to current treatment clinical trials. These have been retrieved from NCI's listing of clinical trials. Some of the tests that were done to diagnose the cancer or to find out the stage of the cancer may be repeated. Some tests will be repeated in order to see how well the treatment is working.
Decisions about whether to continue, change, or stop treatment may be based on the results of these tests. This is sometimes called re-staging. Some of the tests will continue to be done from time to time after treatment has ended. The results of these tests can show if your condition has changed or if the cancer has recurred come back. These tests are sometimes called follow-up tests or check-ups.
Some cancers and cancer treatments cause side effects that continue or appear months or years after cancer treatment has ended. These are called late effects. Late effects may include the following:. Second cancers new types of cancer. Some late effects may be treated or controlled. It is important to talk with your child's doctors about the possible late effects caused by some cancers and cancer treatments.
Nasopharyngeal cancer is a disease in which malignant cancer cells form in the lining of the nasal cavity inside of the nose and throat. It is rare in children younger than 10 and more common in teenagers. The risk of nasopharyngeal cancer is increased by having an infection with the Epstein-Barr virus EBV , which infects cells of the immune system.
Nasopharyngeal cancer may cause any of the following signs and symptoms. Check with your doctor if any of the following problems occur:. When nasopharyngeal is diagnosed , it usually has already spread to lymph nodes in the neck and bones of the skull.
Tests that examine the nasal cavity and throat are used to diagnose and stage nasopharyngeal cancer. They may include:. Physical exam and history. MRI of the head and neck. CT scan of the chest and abdomen. Neurological exam : A series of questions and tests to check the brain, spinal cord , and nerve function.
This may also be called a neuro exam or a neurologic exam. The prognosis chance of recovery for most young patients with nasopharyngeal cancer is very good. The prognosis and treatment options depend on the following:.
The size of the tumor at diagnosis. Whether the tumor has spread to nearby tissues , lymph nodes, or distant parts of the body. Radiation therapy. Chemotherapy given before and at the same time as radiation therapy. A clinical trial of radiation therapy and a drug to prevent radiation therapy side effects.
These may be used with or without chemotherapy given before and at the same time as the radiation therapy. Young patients are more likely than adults to have problems caused by treatment, including second cancers.
Esthesioneuroblastoma olfactory neuroblastoma is a very rare tumor that begins in the olfactory bulb in the brain. The olfactory bulb connects to the nerve that is important to the sense of smell.
Most children have a tumor in the nose or throat at the time of diagnosis. The tumor may spread into the bone around the eyes, sinuses, and the front part of the brain. The disease rarely spreads to other parts of the body. Esthesioneuroblastoma is more common in boys and usually appears during the teen years. Esthesioneuroblastoma may cause any of the following signs and symptoms. Frequent sinus infections. The prognosis chance of recovery depends on whether the cancer is only in the nose or if it has spread to nearby lymph nodes or to other parts of the body.
Surgery and radiation therapy. Newer treatments include sinus surgery done through an endoscope , radiosurgery , or proton beam radiation therapy. Thyroid tumors form in the tissues of the thyroid gland , which is a butterfly-shaped gland at the base of the throat near the windpipe. The thyroid gland makes important hormones that help control growth, heart rate, body temperature, and how quickly food is changed into energy.
Most childhood thyroid tumors occur in girls and children aged 15 to 19 years. Thyroid tumors may be adenomas noncancer or carcinomas cancer. Adenomas can grow very large and sometimes make hormones. Adenomas may become malignant cancer and spread to the lungs or lymph nodes in the neck. Thyroid cancer usually grows and spreads slowly.
The risk of thyroid cancer is increased by being exposed to radiation and by certain genetic syndromes , such as multiple endocrine neoplasia MEN type 2A syndrome or multiple endocrine neoplasia MEN type 2B syndrome. Thyroid tumors may cause any of the following symptoms. Tests that examine the thyroid are used to diagnose and stage thyroid tumors. Fine-needle aspiration FNA biopsy. Open biopsy or surgery to remove all or part of the thyroid.
Ultrasound : A procedure in which high-energy sound waves ultrasound are bounced off internal tissues or organs and make echoes. This procedure can show the size of a thyroid tumor and whether it is solid or a fluid -filled cyst. Ultrasound may be used to guide a fine-needle aspiration FNA biopsy.
Thyroid function test: The blood is checked for abnormal levels of thyroid-stimulating hormone TSH. TSH is made by the pituitary gland in the brain. It stimulates the release of thyroid hormone and controls how fast follicular thyroid cells grow. The blood may also be checked for high levels of the hormone calcitonin. Thyroglobulin test: The blood is checked for the amount of thyroglobulin, a protein made by the thyroid gland.
Thyroglobulin levels are low or absent with normal thyroid function but may be higher with thyroid cancer or other conditions. The prognosis chance of recovery depends on the following:. Surgery to remove most or all of the thyroid gland and lymph nodes with cancer, followed by radioactive iodine RAI to kill any thyroid cancer cells that are left. Hormone replacement therapy HRT is given to make up for the lost thyroid hormone.
Surgery to remove the lobe in which thyroid cancer is found, followed by HRT to make up for the lost thyroid hormone. Radioactive iodine RAI for cancer that has recurred come back. Targeted therapy with tyrosine kinase inhibitors TKIs or vascular endothelial growth factor inhibitors VEGFs for cancer that has spread to other parts of the body or that has recurred.
Four to six weeks after surgery a radioactive iodine scan RAI scan is done to find areas in the body where thyroid cancer cells that were not removed during surgery may be dividing quickly. RAI is used because only thyroid cells take up iodine.
A very small amount of RAI is swallowed, travels through the blood, and collects in thyroid tissue and thyroid cancer cells anywhere in the body. If no cancer cells are found, a larger dose of RAI is given to destroy any remaining thyroid tissue.
If cancer remains in the lymph nodes or has spread to other parts of the body, an even larger dose of RAI is given to destroy any remaining thyroid tissue and thyroid cancer cells. It is common for thyroid cancer to recur , especially in children younger than 10 years and those with cancer in the lymph nodes.
Lifelong follow-up of thyroid hormone levels in the blood is needed to make sure the right amount of hormone replacement therapy HRT is being given.
It is possible that thyroid cancer will spread to the lung later. Tests are done to check for thyroid cancer in the lung. Oral cancer is a disease in which malignant cancer cells form in the tissues of the oral cavity. Most tumors in the oral cavity are benign not cancer. The most common type of oral cancer in adults, squamous cell carcinoma cancer of the thin, flat cells lining the mouth , is very rare in children.
However, the number of new cases of oral cancer in teenage girls and young women has increased since the mids. Malignant tumors in children include lymphomas and sarcomas. Tobacco use: Using any tobacco product increases the risk of oral cancer. Use of smokeless tobacco may cause mouth cancer. Changes in the texture, color, and shape of tissue inside the mouth have been seen in more than half of all teenagers who use smokeless tobacco.
Previous radiation therapy : Oral cancer is more likely in people who have had other childhood tumors and were treated with radiation therapy to the oral cavity. Fanconi anemia. Dyskeratosis congenita a rare bone marrow disorder that affects red blood cells , white blood cells , and platelets.
A mutation in connexin genes changes the way proteins that connect cells are made. Chronic graft-versus-host disease GVHD. Epidermolysis bullosa an illness that causes the skin to be easily injured and causes painful blisters. Xeroderma pigmentosum. Human papillomavirus HPV infection. Oral cancer may cause any of the following signs and symptoms. Check with you doctor if any of the following problems occur:. These designations are intended to help readers assess the strength of the evidence supporting the use of specific interventions or approaches.
PDQ is a registered trademark. Although the content of PDQ documents can be used freely as text, it cannot be identified as an NCI PDQ cancer information summary unless it is presented in its entirety and is regularly updated. Permission to use images outside the context of PDQ information must be obtained from the owner s and cannot be granted by the National Cancer Institute. Information about using the illustrations in this summary, along with many other cancer-related images, is available in Visuals Online , a collection of over 2, scientific images.
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Neuroblastoma starts in early forms of nerve cells found in a developing embryo or fetus. This type of cancer develops in infants and young children.
It is rare in children older than The tumor can start anywhere, but it usually starts in the belly abdomen where it is noticed as swelling. It can also cause other symptoms, like bone pain and fever. Wilms tumor also called nephroblastoma starts in one, or rarely, both kidneys. It is most often found in children about 3 to 4 years old, and is uncommon in older children and adults.
It can show up as a swelling or lump in the belly abdomen. Sometimes the child might have other symptoms, like fever, pain, nausea, or poor appetite. Lymphomas start in immune system cells called lymphocytes. These cancers most often start in lymph nodes or in other lymph tissues, like the tonsils or thymus. They can also affect the bone marrow and other organs. Donate Now. Rare Childhood Cancers. What are Rare Childhood Cancers? Back to all cancer types.
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